Perspectives
Throughout American psychological history the three major contributors to behavioral psychology were John Watson, B. F. Skinner, and Edward Tolman. Each theorist had different approaches to their research and therefore developed different concepts. Within each theorist lies different assumptions and has impacted modern-day psychology distinctly.
American behaviorists repeatedly trace their roots to John B. Watson, who started the behaviorist manifesto (Goodwin, 2005). Growing up, Watson did not have the best living environment and unsurprisingly acquired behavior problems in his mid-adolescences. Watson was branded a troublemaker and even was arrested two times (Goodwin, 2005). However, right before behaviorism became popular most psychologists disapproved of his perspectives.
The first subject Watson decided to experiment on was rats. Watson’s interests in animal behavior started to shape his views about psychology but Watson reflected back on his Chicago years, Watson soon went on to write that he was uncomfortable with introspective methods and human subjects (Goodwin, 2005). Watson goes on to say that, “Can’t I find out by watching their behavior everything that the other students are finding out by using [human subjects]” (Watson, 1936, p. 279) (Goodwin, 2005). First when he did this test on rats Watson wanted to see if they could function without certain senses. Watson and Carr systematically eliminated the ability of the animals to use their senses when solving a version of the Hampton Court maze. Displaying skillful surgical techniques, Watson removed the eyes from some rats, the middle ears from others, and the olfactory bulbs from a third group (Goodwin, 2005). Watson wanted to find out what senses rats can go without and still be able to learn the Hampton Court maze they created. When looking at these experiments that were done by Watson one would have to conclude that by doing the experiment on rats, they were for ethical reasons. Watson’s career at Johns Hopkins was suddenly ended due to questionable ethics in one of his experiences.
The way that Watson's behaviorism perspective is a part of modern day psychology is that individuals are using his perspective in his or her daily life. Watson’s behaviorism is used today with parents, teachers, and psychologist. For example, if a child who isn’t sleeping in their own bed at night can be rewarded with a treat or some other positive reinforcement. By doing this a child will stay in their own bed more often because they know if they do, they could receive an reward.
Edward Tolman stated in an APA presidential address, “I believe that everything important in psychology ... can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze” (Tolman, 1938, p. 34). Tolman used animals to display his nonbehaviorist belief (Goodwin, 2005). Tolman argued that behavior should be defined as actions that serve a purpose and these ideas would become the core of Tolman’s theory of learning (Kendler, 1988).
He created rat mazes to do studies on rats and their responses such as food, available at the end of the maze or what reaction would be given if a rat wasn’t allowed something such as water (Goodwin, 2005). To test for latent learning, Tolman supposed that reinforcement was not necessary for learning. He said that food found by rats at the end of a maze simply influenced the rat’s motivation to complete the maze as promptly as possible to find food but did not influence learning directly. In the 1920 the consistency of Tolman’s mazes began to come into question (Goodman, 2005). Different mazes appeared to yield different outcomes and sometimes the same mazes would represent conflicting results (Goodman, 2005). Later Tolman concluded that the rats learned a cognitive map, rather than responses to certain stimuli.
Tolman did research and experiments that relate to modern-day psychology. His theories emphasized (a) molar over molecular behavior, (b) the purposiveness or goal-directedness of behavior, and (c) the use of intervening variables (Goodwin, 2005). Tolman explains that an individual’s actions are goal directed. If one’s had a goal to reach, why would one behave in a certain way or waste time doing something that will not help? As individuals they show a sense of desired behavior if one is given a benefited outcome. For example, if a child cleans up his or her toys they receive a piece of candy. The child’s goal is to clean so they receive that reward.
B. F. Skinner was an independent thinker and without sound evidence to prove the contrary, skinner would not believe his elders opinions. Skinner slowly started to become intrigued by behaviorism in the 1920 by reading articles based on behaviorism by Watson and Pavlov (Goodwin, 2005). Skinner decided to develop a system of behaviorism during his attendance at Harvard.
Skinner was very adamant in believing that psychology must contain a base of two goals; the prediction and control of behavior, both nonhuman and human (Goodwin, 2005). Skinner believed that personality develops and one’s behavior responds only because of events taken place (Skinnerian Psychology, 1972). This encouraged Skinner to look for evidence that behavior may be predicted and controlled (Goodwin, 2005). Skinner wanted to show the difference between the characteristic involving classical and operant conditioning and for investigating the latter. Skinner created the Skinner box and placed a pigeon in the box to see the immediate consequences of the behaviors. This experiment was an example of operant conditioning shaped by immediate consequences and if that consequence is positive, the behavior taken place in a certain place is most likely to occur again within the same situation (Goodwin, 2005). If there is a negative, the behavior becomes less possible to happen (Goodwin, 2005).
Skinner’s theory is applied in modern-day psychology on a daily base. The best example that Skinner explained was when a child behaves well in a store because he or she is rewarded by good behavior, maybe by the parent buying them something. When a child behaves badly, it will never know the consequences because the child has never experienced it. Another example would be if a child is throwing a fit in a store. By continuing to throw a fix the child will not be able to have desert at dinner time as a consequence.
Each theorist had different views when it came to positive and negative consequences. Watson believed that a person’s behavior was solely based on whether or not they would receive a reward at the end. Watson’s perspective on behavior was very physical in nature. He focused mainly on physical stimuli to the study of behavior. Tolman tried to disprove this theory with his rat experiment to show that a reward or lack thereof made no difference in whether or not the rat was able to complete the maze. Tolman focused mainly on the nurture aspect of the nature-nurture continuum. Tolman believed a person’s behavior was learned from the environment around them and was not inherited. On the other end of the spectrum, Skinner believed that instead of wanting a reward for a specific behavior, a person would avoid the negative consequence.
All three theorists used experimentation to prove their theories about human behavior. They all used animals in their research and all focused on the discovery of the crucial laws of conditioning. Even though Watson’s and Tolman’s research was overshadowed by Skinner, all three of them theorist were credited with being the first of the neobehaviorist. Skinner was impressed with Watson’s brashness and when his career ended Skinner decided to follow in his, footsteps (Kendler, 1988). All the theories produced in this time area are still practiced in modern day psychology from child rearing to criminal courts. The theorists were building blocks for all today’s behaviorist psychology.
Over the last century behaviorism has grown and evolved because of John Watson, B. F. Skinner and Edward Tolman (Kendler, 1988). Even though they differed on their approach and research topics, each theorist impacted the field on behaviorism greatly. Many Americans still use their theories to this day. The neobehaviorist have helped to explain the actions of many humans and nonhumans.
References
Goodwin, C., A History of Modern Psychology (2nd edition), (2005), Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Kendler, H. (1988). Behavioral determinism: A strategic assumption?. American Psychologist, 43(10), 822-823. Doi:10.1037/00003-066X.43.10.822.
Skinnerian Psychology. (1972)., Authoritarianism and tunnel vision. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28(2), 123-124.
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